“Is God A Conservative?”

“Is God A Conservative?”




What we learn from nature is that conformity, conventional behavior and conservative living systems, are adequate and adapted to their environmental and social conditions. They remain stable and unchanging in their adapted environment which becomes the norm. What is adapted biologically and behaviorally to environmental conditions usually survive and thrive. They become the majority within the species and in the adapted environment. They become consistent, predictable, and are the embodiment of preconceived normality. But when faced with environmental change they become unstable and are unable to adapt. They become stagnant and do not evolve. They become evolutionary dead ends. Adapted and conservative human systems are no different. Their economies, political and social ideologies are no different than natural animal adapted systems. They are less likely to adapt to change or to embrace change. They are more likely to opposed and to suppress change. They embrace conformity, consistency and what worked for them in the past. Conservative ideology embraces and remembers what worked in the past, and prohibits adaptation to changing environments and behaviors. They are stuck in the past and it leads to evolutionary dead ends.

If nature and human behavior remained the same forever, then conservatism would be fine. We would be one happy adapted, conservative and consistent human society. But nature and humans are far from being consistent. They are unpredictable, dynamic and ever changing. Nature does not favor the adapted, the consistent or the conformed. It favors those that are inconsistent in their biology, behavior and ability to adapt. Nature favors variety and differences, not likeness and similarity. Nothing remains the same for very long, and that which does not change with the dynamics of nature, is doomed to perish. When natural or human caused catastrophic change happens, which it most certainly will, it is the biologically or behaviorally adapted that will suffer. They are the ones who will not be critical of their own behaviors enough to change with the times, or are physically unable to adapt to changing environments.  In the long run nature does not favor that which is already adapted and conformed, it favors that which may adapt, that which is unique in its ability to survive. With humans it favors that which is different from the rest, the odd ball out, the physically different, the creative, the critical or the progressive thinkers. Those that were different biologically and behaviorally will have the best chance of  surviving the destruction or the new changed environment.

One hundred to seventy thousand years ago, when the African continent was experiencing severe climatic change and humans were slowly becoming extinct. It was a group of humans that were different from the rest that survived while everyone else was perishing and unable to adapt to the changing environment. Physically and biologically they looked no different from the rest, but behaviorally they were different enough to increase their survival. Their survival enabled them to pass on their genetics. We can now recognize them as being ever so slightly different genetically from the humans that ultimately perished from the African continent. These surviving humans were slightly more creative tool makers, enabling them to adapt to and to survive the changing environment. Their behavior slightly more social with other groups of humans, establishing trade with them. These are the humans we all come from. They are the humans that inherited the African continent and eventually left Africa and migrated to every corner of the planet. They are the humans that eventually adapted to every environment on this planet, even at the cost of evolving and changing physically themselves. It was the nature of these humans to adapt. It is our nature to adapt and to not conform. Adaptation not conformism or conservatism is what enables humans to survive.

We are still the same species only with slight physical differences. Every human is slightly different genetically than the rest. That is the gift of nature. It favors variety. Even identical twins are slightly different from one another genetically. If you believe in god and that god is the creator of everything including nature, then god is nature and god favors change, differences and inconsistencies. God does not favor conformity, consistency and conservatism. God is not a conservative. God is nature and nature is unpredictable, destructive and everchanging. We must be willing to adapt, which means willing to change. We must be willing to change behaviors, ideology and embrace differences. We must be critical and open to progressive and liberal thought. We can embrace the past, but we must not live in the past. We must learn what this old African Sankofa symbol teaches us. “We must remember and learn from the past in order to move into the future.”

 

David Yanez

2-20-2021


Cuentos de Un Spic Americano: "La Vida Existe Entre el Dolor."


Cuentos de Un Spic Americano: 

"La Vida Existe Entre el Dolor."




Recuerdo este día en 1967. Fue mi sesión fotográfica de primer grado. Tuve seis años y era demasiado tímido para pedir permiso para usar el baño, y en este día recuerdo nerviosamente tratando de cubrir el hecho de que me oriné durante la sesión de fotos.

Verá, en ese entonces la humillación no era nada nuevo para mí. La humillación era algo con lo que vivía todos los días. Y en ese día, la vida estaba trabajando horas extras para humillarme, porque cuando sonaba la campana de las tres en punto, sabía lo que me esperaba. Sabía que era hora de ser golpeado. Tres niños blancos americanos me esperaban en el patio de la escuela. Esperando para humillarme y golpearme, y no había manera de que les permitiera verme con mis pantalones mojados. Así que me escapé de la escuela temprano ese día para evitar verlos, y para evitar una nariz sangrienta, los insultos y la humillación.

Verá, lo que dejé de mencionar es la razón por la que me golpearon y humillaron durante mi niñez. Por alguna razón de la cual no entendía, mi familia y yo éramos diferentes. Incluso hablábamos un idioma diferente y ni siquiera sabía por qué. Incluso nuestro apellido era diferente de todos los otros niños. ¿Por qué no hablaban inglés mis padres? Eso fue muy vergonzoso, pero lo que era más vergonzoso era cuando nuestros vecinos blancos lanzaban botellas a nosotros desde sus ventanas cuando pasamos caminando. Ellos solían escupirnos y darnos el dedo mediano, y cuando entrabamos en una tienda solían mirarnos desde la esquina de sus ojos y susurrar: "Asegúrese de que no roben nada." Entonces sí, diría que éramos diferentes.

Luego esa tarde, mi maestra vino a nuestro departamento y golpeó la puerta. Mi madre apenas entendía inglés, pero mi hermana de nueve años tradujo para ella. Mi maestra le dijo que yo había dejado la escuela temprano ese día sin su permiso. En lo que respecta a mí, el mundo básicamente se terminó. Cuando mi padre llegó a casa yo sabía cuál sería el castigo. Mi padre era famoso por repartir nuestros castigos al quitarse el cinturón de cuero y azotarnos a través de nuestros traseros hasta que lloramos y nos disculpábamos.

Efectivamente, cuando llegó a casa ese día, me preguntó por qué corte la escuela. Entonces le dije. Le dije la verdad. Quizás tenga piedad de mí. Pude ver por la expresión en su rostro que estaba de molesto. Mientras procedía a azotarme, noté que algo estaba mal. Fue como si el viento lo hubiera quitado por un segundo más o menos, y sí, definitivamente algo estaba mal. Mi padre no era el mismo de siempre. ¿Por qué estaba llorando? Soy el único que debería estar llorando. Yo soy el que corto la escuela. Y por encima del sonido de mis gritos lo escuché gritar:

"¿Prefieres que esos muchachos te peguen, o que yo te peque? ¡Quiero que te defiendas a partir de ahora! ¡No permitas que nadie te llame Spic nunca más!"

Mientras sus lágrimas corrían por su rostro, sabía que tenía que luchar, por el bien de mi padre. Para que no se sienta tan mal. Desde ese día, nadie, no importa lo grandes que eran, me llamarían “Spic” sin probar mis nudillos.

Tres años antes, en 1964, mi familia y yo inmigramos a Nueva York desde Ecuador. El año de la Feria Mundial de Nueva York. El año en que los Beatles invadieron América. El año que televisión en color hizo su vista de día, y se desenrolló el modelo para los futuros World Trade Centers. El año en que el movimiento por los derechos civiles gano impulso y los disturbios raciales en Harlem estallaron. El año en que tres trabajadores de los derechos civiles fueron asesinados por el Ku Klux Klan. El año en que Malcolm X proclamó que se había acabado el tiempo, "Es la boleta electoral o la bala." El año en que Martin Luther King fue galardonado con el Premio Nobel de la Paz. Fue el año en que César Chávez dio voz a la Asociación Nacional de Trabajadores Agrícolas. El año en que se suponía que la discriminación racial estaba prohibida en la Ley de Derechos Civiles.

Este fue el año en que se declaró la guerra contra Vietnam del Norte, pero la guerra no fue en Vietnam, la guerra estuvo aquí, en Jackson Heights, Elmhurst y Ridgewood Queens. Armas de discriminación de masas se utilizaron contra mí, devorando mi mente como el Napalm quemando la piel. A los tres años estaba profundamente metido en las trincheras de una guerra de identidad. Una guerra que duraría toda mi vida, y dejaría en mi mente las cicatrices de la batalla, los flashbacks y el trastorno de estrés postraumático. Fui un Spic de tres años, viviendo el sueño americano y qué pesadilla era. ¿Quién era yo? ¿Qué era yo?

En 1964, la gentrificación funcionó de la manera opuesta. La gente prósperos no nos obligaron a salir de los barrios pobres para volver a desarrollarlos por sí mismos, como hacen hoy. Se mudaron de sus propios barrios agradables, por su propia cuenta. Se mudaron porque nos odiaban, y tenían miedo de nosotros, pero, sobre todo, porque no querían que sus hijas se enamoraran de nosotros. Fuimos solo la primera ola de muchas olas de inmigrantes latinoamericanos que heredaron estos barrios blancos que abandonaron y dejaron como perdido. Éramos spics, pieles oscuras, pieles claras, no importaba. No importaba que mi madre era una mujer caucásica y hermosa, porque cuando nos escuchaban hablar, lo supieron, siempre lo supieron, sabían que éramos spics.

Era un tiempo cuando latinos e hispanos no existían. La identidad latina es un fenómeno bastante reciente. Fui un Spic mucho antes de que alguien se diera cuenta de que eran latinos o latinx. No hubo ecuatorianos, ni cubanos americanos, ni dominicanos ni colombianos. En los ojos del hombre blanco éramos españoles, mexicanos o porto ricans.

Adiós autoestima, hola timidez extrema, olvídate de sentirme bien conmigo mismo. Olvídate de la confianza en uno mismo, no tenía identidad; ¿Quién era yo? ¿Qué era yo?

Olvídate de que alguna vez fuera capaz de invitar a una chica blanca a una cita, después que me dieron el dedo mediano y me llamaron "Spic" cada vez que nos mudamos a sus barrios. Todavía puedo recordar su rostro, pero no recuerdo su nombre, hermosa, rubia y ella vivía al otro lado de la calle. Yo tenía siete años, y recuerdo a su madre gritándole a nuestro dueño de casa delante a todo el vecindario, por alquilar un apartamento a los spics, quien eran nosotros. Recuerdo que él le volvió a gritar con su pesado acento italiano, dándole el dedo medio y llamándola insultos sexuales irrepetibles, que hasta hoy recuerdo palabra por palabra. Y cuando su hija, que estaba en mi clase de segundo grado, comenzó a darme el dedo mediano, se lo devolví a ella. Pero a diferencia de su madre, sabía que ella me gustaba y que yo le gustaba, pero no pudimos mostrarlo. Fue entendido, y lo hicimos un juego. Aunque ella nunca me llamó un spic, cada vez que nos vimos nos tiramos los dedos medianos y nos reímos. Logramos existir entre los insultos y el dolor. Unos meses más tarde, su madre se mudó del vecindario y la llevó con ella. Me gustaría recordar el nombre.

Verá, a la edad de nueve años, ya estaba insensible, insensible al dolor. Inmune a cualquier dolor que la vida pueda arrojar en mi camino. Para mí, la vida existía entre el dolor, entre la soledad y la confusión, entre las narices ensangrentadas y los insultos, entre el abuso sexual y la vergüenza. A los nueve años, lo único que pude hacer era simplemente, volverme a subir al caballo y sacudirme, porque nunca dejo la lucha. Había una guerra en mi cabeza, por el control de mi identidad y mi cordura, y era una guerra que no podía permitirme perder. Fue una guerra en la que he estado luchando desde el día de mi primer recuerdo. El día que siempre creí que había nacido. El día que volví consciente. Mi primer recuerdo en la vida. A los tres años, y en mi cumpleaños, la vida comenzaría y tomaría un significado para mí. Fue el día en que me llamaron "Fucking Spic" por primera vez. Nací en mi tercer cumpleaños, el 9 de julio de 1964.

Soy un subproducto del racismo y la discriminación. Soy una prueba viviente del daño que causa a las personas y especialmente a los niños. Yo fui un spic de tres años y he permanecido un spic emocional y mentalmente toda la vida. Es solo ahora que intento darle sentido a todo, expresarlo y sacarlo todo para ir adelante. Para poder vivir la vida, entre el dolor.

 

David Yanez

4-15-14






DAVID YANEZ  

yanezfineartconservation.blogspot.com                                                                                                      
dvdyanez@aol.com


CURRICULUM VITAE


EDUCACION

2015   Maestría en Bellas Artes, Queens College, City University of New York

1983   Licenciatura en Bellas ArtesSchool of Visual Arts, Nueva York, NY

1996   Gustav Berger Taller / Seminario para Conservadores, Nueva York, Rustin
            Levenson Art Conservation Associates,


HISTORIA DE TRABAJO

2016 – Presente
             Yanez Fine Art Conservation, Queens Nueva York. Propietario de práctica 
             Privada.

2013 - 2016
            Maria Iosifescu Painting Conservation, Nueva York. Conservador y restaurador
            de pinturas importantes de los siglos XVI, XVII, XVIII, XIX y XX de Estados Unidos
            y Europa.

2010 - 2013
            Judd  Foundation, Nueva York. Restaurando un fresco de David Novros, trabajando bajo
            la supervisión de Kiernan Graves.

            Luca Bonetti Painting Conservation, Nueva York. Restaurador de pinturas.

            Fine Art Conservation Group, Nueva York. Remoción de un mural del techo en la sala de
            prensa de City Hall en Nueva York. Remoción de yeso y adhesivo de plomo detrás del
            lienzo original. Forrar y retocar del mural.

            Joel Żakow Art Conservation, Nueva York. Restaurador de pinturas.

2004 - 2010
             Fundi Yanez Fine Art Conservation, Queens Nueva York. Propietario de práctica 
             privada de restauración de pinturas importantes de los Estados Unidos y
             Europa, de los siglos XVII, XVIII, XIX y XX.

1999 - 2004
             Julius Lowy Frame and Restoring Co. Nueva York. Restauración de pinturas importantes
             variando desde los viejos maestros hasta arte contemporáneo. Introducción e
             implementación un nuevo sistema para consolidar y limpiar pinturas. Desarrollo de
             nuevos métodos para consolidar y forrar murales de gran escala a lienzo.

1998 - 1999
             John Andolsek Painting Conservation, Santa Fe, N.M. Estados Unidos. Socio del negocio.
             Restauración de pinturas estadounidenses y europeas del siglo XIX y XX, con énfasis en las
             pinturas del sur oeste de los Estados Unidos. Encargado de examinar y proponer planes
             de tratamiento, así como de redactar las condiciones y los informes de tratamiento para
             las pinturas. Consolidación, limpieza y retoque de pinturas, además de eliminar antiguos
             soportes de madera a mano.  

1996 - 1998
             Simon Parkes Art Conservation, NYC. Restauración y limpieza de pinturas importantes de los
             siglos XVII, XVIII, XIX y XX de Europa, Estados Unidos y Latinoamérica.
           
1990 - 1996
             Yost Painting Conservation Nueva York. Restaurador de pinturas. Restaurando pinturas   
             estadounidenses y europeas de los siglos XIX y XX.)

1985 -  1990
               The Art Display Service, NYC. Ebanista y preparador en galerías (marcos, pedestales, y muebles)
              para obras de arte de calidad museo.

              Judson Art Warehouse  L.I.C NY. Constructor de cajones de embalaje para obras de arte
              De calidad museo.

              Hudson River Museum, Yonkers NY. Preparador de museo. Especializado en la   
              producción, preparación y montaje de exposiciones de arte.  
            
1984 -   Demetrio Alfonso Conservación de Arte, Nueva York. Aprendiz de
              retocador de pinturas (estadounidenses del siglo XIX).




DAVID YANEZ                                                                      yanezfineartconservation.com
                                                                                              info@yanezfineartconservation.com
                                                                                                                            718 541 6326

Curriculum Vitae    
                                                          

Education

2015     Master’s in Fine Art, Painting, Queens College, City University of New York
1996     Seminar for Conservators/ Gustav Berger Workshop, Rustin
              Levenson Art Conservation Associates, New York
1983     Bachelor of Fine Arts, School of Visual Arts, New York


Work History

2016 - Present
             Yanez Fine Art Conservation, Queens New York. Private practice
             Restoring museum quality paintings from old masters to contemporary
             for major auction houses, institutions, dealers and collectors.

2013 – 2016
             Maria Iosifescu Painting Conservation, L.I.C. NY. Freelance paintings
             Conservator. Restoring old masters to contemporary paintings. including Jackson Pollock,      Max Ernst and others.

2010 - 2013
             Judd Foundation, NYC. Freelance in-painter restoring a David Novros fresco, working
             under the supervision of conservator Kiernan Graves. 
           
             Luca Bonetti Painting Conservation, NY. Freelance paintings conservator. Restoring 20th                century paintings including paintings by Frank Stella, Richard Pousette Dart and others.

             Fine Art Conservation Group, NYC. Freelance paintings conservator.
             Removal of the ceiling murals in the press room of City Hall in New York. Removal 
             of plaster, lead adhesive and lining of murals.
    
             Joel Żakow Art Conservation, NYC. Paintings conservator.
             Restoring old masters to contemporary paintings including paintings by Albert Bierstadt,
             Pierre-Auguste Renoir, Yayoi Kusama and others.

2004 - 2010
             Yanez Fine Art Conservation, Queens New York. Private practice
             owner. Restored paintings ranging from 17th century to contemporary
             European and American paintings.         

1999 - 2004
             Julius Lowy Frame and Restoring Co. NYC. Staff paintings conservator.
             Restored major paintings ranging from Old Masters to Contemporary.
             Introduced and implemented a new lining and cleaning system.
             Developed new methods for lining large scale murals on canvas using Beva 371.

1998 - 1999
             John Andolsek Painting Conservation, Santa Fe, NM. Business partner.
             Restored 19th and 20th century American and European paintings
             concentrating on American South-Western paintings. Restored paintings by Georgia
             O’Keeffe, Frederic Remington, George Catlin, Oscar E. Berninghaus and others

1996 - 1998
             Simon Parkes Art Conservation, NYC. Staff paintings conservator. Restored paintings   
             ranging from Italian old masters, 20th century Latin American to American contemporary.
             
1990 – 1996
             Yost Painting Conservation, NYC. Staff paintings conservator. Line, clean and in-paint
             19th and 20th century American and European paintings

1985 – 1990
             The Art Display Service, NYC. Worked as a wood worker specializing in the arts.
             Built custom gallery furniture, frames, and pedestals.

             Judson Art Warehouse L.I.C NY. Crate builder and packer for museum quality
             artworks.

             The Hudson River Museum, Yonkers NY. Museum Preparator. Specialized in production,  
             preparation and installation of art exhibits.

1984    Demetrio Alfonso Art Conservation, New York City, Apprenticed as a              
             Paintings conservator. Worked on 19th century American paintings.


Artists Restored:


Caravaggio, Francisco de Zurbarán, Sir Anthony van Dyck, Thomas Gainsborough, Sir Thomas Lawrence, Gustave Courbet, Gilbert Stuart, George Caitlin, Jean-Baptiste Camille Corot, Edouard Manet, Pierre-Auguste Renoir, Mary Cassatt, William Bouguereau, Jules Dupré, John Singer Sargent, Childe Hassam, William Merritt Chase, George Inness, Jasper Francis Cropsey, Albert Bierstadt, John Frederick Kensett, Asher B. Durand, Thomas Moran, Robert Henri, George Bellows, Reginald Marsh, Rockwell Kent, Thomas Hart Benton, Arthur Dove, Pablo Picasso, Diego Rivera, Salvador Dali, Leonora Carrington, Max Ernst, Henry Moore, Georgia O'Keeffe, Frederic Remington, Oscar E. Berninghaus, Norman Rockwell, J. C. Leyendecker, Maxfield Parrish, Bob Thompson, Jacob Lawrence, Norman Lewis, Jackson Pollock, Richard Pousette-Dart, Robert Rauschenberg, Gene Davis, Frank Stella, Yayoi Kusama, David Novros, as well as many more prominent and lesser known American, European, and Latin American Artists.

¿Qué es La Magia?





¿Qué es La Magia?

Shaman en la Amazonia ecuadoriana durante una ceremonia ayahuasca.
Photo por: Ammit Jack/Shutterstock April 2015,
Stock photo ID: 268016867






















La magia no es una ilusión o ficción, lo oculto o lo paranormal.
No es brujería, sobrenatural ni lo opuesto a la ciencia.
No es lo que pensaban los antiguos griegos, romanos e israelitas.
No es malvado, ni ritual fraudulento ni práctica criminal,
Realizado por charlatanes, brujas, magos, dioses o demonios.
No se opone a la religión, la naturaleza o la ley humana.
No hay magia buena o blanca, ni talismanes ni muñecos vudú.
La magia no es un lenguaje simbólico de hechizos, maldiciones o incantaciones,
Que tiene influencia sobre el mundo físico.
No hay una comprensión colectiva de lo que es la magia.
No hay una definición académica aceptada de magia.
Entonces, ¿qué es magia?


Al igual que nuestros antepasados, realmente no sabemos qué es la magia.
Interpretaciones humanas primitivas de fuerzas desconocidas,
Abrió la puerta a un mundo de magia, imaginación,
Religión, ritual y una conciencia de nuestro lugar en el mundo.
Magia, fue lo que no entendimos.
Como los niños, nos alimentamos y crecimos con la curiosidad.
Lo que antes era primitivo, renació.
Un renacimiento del pensamiento, de repente se afianza.
Métodos adaptados, observaciones realizadas, teorías propuestas,
Resultando en el estudio de la estructura y el comportamiento del Universo 
Físico y natural, a través de la observación, la hipótesis, la predicción y el experiment.
La ciencia nace.


La ciencia saca conclusiones basadas en el conocimiento disponible.
¿Pero qué pasa con las fuerzas desconocidas, las estructuras
y comportamientos desconocidos?
¿Tal vez hay cosas que nunca se pueden saber?
Tal vez deberíamos cambiar la definición de ciencia a ser:
"La ciencia es el estudio de la estructura y el comportamiento del universo físico y natural,
Y sus estructuras, fuerzas y comportamientos aún desconocidos,
A través de la observación, la hipótesis, la predicción y el experimento ".
La ciencia es así, el estudio de lo que se conoce y se desconoce.
Es el estudio de la magia y el universo que la ejerce.
La magia es así el universo, y cómo crea de la nada, a todo.
Las religiones evolucionaron, la ciencia evolucionó, pero ¿y la espiritualidad?
La espiritualidad es nuestra necesidad innata de buscar y comprender la magia. 



David Yanez 
12-19-17



Copyright 2017 David Yanez. All Rights Reserved.

What Is Magic?



What Is Magic?

Shaman in Ecuadorian Amazonia during a real ayahuasca ceremony.
Photo by: Ammit Jack/Shutterstock, model released image, as seen in April 2015,
Stock photo ID: 268016867






















Magic is not an illusion or fiction, the occult or the paranormal.
It is not sorcery, supernatural nor the opposite of science.
It is not what the ancient Greeks, Romans and Israelites thought.
It is not wicked, nor fraudulent ritual or criminal practice,
Performed by charlatans, witches, magicians, gods or demons.
It doesn’t oppose religion, nature or human law.
There is no good or white magic, no talismans or voodoo dolls.
Magic is not a symbolic language of spells, curses or incantations,
That have influence over the physical world.
There is no collective understanding of what magic is.
No accepted scholarly definition of magic.
So, what is magic?

Like our ancestors we really don’t know what magic is.
Primitive human interpretations of unknown forces,
Opened the door into a world of magic, imagination,
Religion, ritual and an awareness of our place in the world.
Magic, was what we did not understand.
Like children, we fed and grew on curiosity.
What was once primitive, became reborn.
A renaissance of thought, suddenly takes hold.
Methods adapted, observations made, theories proposed,
Resulting in the study of the structure and behavior of the physical and
Science is born.

Science draws conclusions based on the available knowledge.
But what of the unknown forces, the unknown structures and behaviors?
Perhaps there are things that can never be known?
Perhaps we should change the definition of science to be:
“Science is the study of the structure and behaviors of the natural
Physical universe and its yet unknown structures, forces and behaviors,
Through observation, hypothesis, prediction and experiment.”
Science is thus, the study of what is known and unknown.
It is the study of magic, and the universe that wields it.
Magic is thus the universe, and how it creates from nothing, everything.
Religions evolved, science evolved, but what about spiritualty?
Spirituality, is our innate need to seek out and understand the magic.



David Yanez
12-19-17


Copyright 2017 David Yanez. All Rights Reserved.

"White Marble: When Sculpture Lost It's Color."

White Marble: When Sculpture Lost It's Color.

By David Yanez  Feb. 4, 2016

Philadelphia Museum of Art,  North Pediment,  Carl Paul Jennewein, 1932


Why did Renaissance sculptors work with white marble, when they were influenced by ancient Greek sculptures that were originally painted?

Polychromy means the art of painting in several colors, especially as applied to ancient pottery, sculpture, and architecture. This article will explore the influence ancient Greek sculpture had on the Renaissance culture, but will focus on why Renaissance artists were not influenced by the polychromy of that sculpture. Drawing from historical accounts in the Renaissance time period of when Greek sculpture first saw the light of day, I will determine why Renaissance artists were not influenced by ancient Greek polychromy and preferred white marble or uncolored sculpture instead. I will be using contemporary research on the polychromy of ancient Greek sculpture, and the science and technology involved in revealing it, which is largely being conducted at Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek Museum through a project called "The Glyptotek project and the Copenhagen Polychromy Network." 

Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek Museum website
http://www.glyptoteket.com/explore/research/tracking-colour
This research is designed to systematically investigate the museums Greek and Roman stone sculptures for traces of color, using the latest scientific technology. It is the first of its kind anywhere. Understanding the science used to reveal ancient polychromy is key to understanding how it may have been perceived during the Renaissance.

After working thirty three years in the art industry, 26 of which I've worked as a paintings conservator, and having gone through my art studies complete with required world art history courses, it was not until very recently that I discovered that ancient Greek sculpture was painted. Largely due to the research conducted by archaeologist Vinzenz Brinkmann based on earlier research initiated in 1981 by Volkmar von Graeve at the Ludwig Maximilian University, which focused on the coloration of ancient sculpture. This research inspired a world traveling exhibition called "Gods in Color: Painted Sculpture of Classical Antiquity," which featured 20 painted full-size reconstructions of Greek and Roman originals, displayed alongside original colorless sculptures. This exhibition raised a lot of eyebrows and brought much needed awareness to the fact that ancient classical sculpture was painted.


A modern reconstruction of the polychromy of trojan archer of the Temple of Aphaia, ca. 485–480 BC (For “Gods in Color” exhibit

With this in mind, my curiosity was peaked. If ancient examples of Greek polychromy survived and are clearly visible in the sculptures of the "Triple-bodied Monster" from the Hekatompedon Pediment of the Athenian Acropolis, then why with the thousands of ancient Greek sculptural objects found during the Renaissance, did the polychromy of these sculptures not influence the artists of the time?

"Triple-bodied Monster”  from the Hekatompedon pediment of the Athenian Acropolis

The use of Polychromy in Antiquity

The Western monochromatic sculptural aesthetic has dominated artistic sculptural production ever since the dawn of the Renaissance. The white marble or the monochromatic depiction of three dimensional form has been the rule and the norm for nearly 700 years. But in reality, for much of human existence colored sculpture was the rule and the norm. It is now generally accepted by scholars that the use of polychromy on ancient sculpture was the rule and standard practice ever since sculpture was invented. Some of the oldest and earliest examples of human sculpture dating as far back as 25 to 40 thousand years ago have been found to be painted in red ochre, e.g. “The Venus of Willendorf.” As far back as Mesopotamia and ancient Egypt, from China to the Etruscans, archeological evidence points to painted sculpture throughout the world.


Venus of Willendorf Oolitic limestone Created c. 28,000 B.C.E – 25,000 B.C.E. Discovered 1908 near Willendorf, by Josef Szombathy Present location
Naturhistorisches Museum, Vienna, Austria

Depicting colorless humans and a colorless natural world would not make sense unless we lived in a colorless or monochromatic world. Ancient humans new the value of color in nature and in their own daily lives. One cannot help but notice that ancient humans unlike most animals are basically colorless and they realized the importance of color in the natural world and applied it to their own dull appearance. Being the most intelligent animals in the world, modern humans adapted via behavior, more so than via biology. Pre-historic humans survived by understanding nature. They had to rely on their keen observation of the animals, the weather, the stars, the moon and the sun. They had to learn through trial and error, which wild plants to eat, and which insects or snakes to avoid. Animals  evolved the use of seeing in color for a reason. Animals and plants employ color to communicate. This is a primitive and basic form of aesthetics that has evolved in nature 

With their keen observation skills and high intelligence, primitive humans must have made the connection that color can be used to attract and repel. By observing how animals used color in order to attract and repel, early humans set out to color themselves. The use of color by humans can be traced back as far as 100,000 years to Blombos Cave near Still Bay, South Africa. Here the oldest artist workshop has been found, where red ochre pigment was finely ground in abalone shells to make some of the earliest human made paint. Along with the art workshop decorative shell necklaces were found. It appears that humans had begun to elaborately decorate themselves similar to the way that nature decorates its life forms. Humans had found a way to use color to their own advantage. Eventually this led to other creative behaviors like music, dance, painting and sculpture making. The evolution of art had its beginnings with our keen observations of nature. Human dance is not much different from the dance of a bird, or its singing, but when symbolic painting and sculpture came into existence, intent was clear.

An ochre-rich mixture, possibly used for decoration, painting and skin protection 100,000 years ago, and stored in two abalone shells, was discovered at Blombos Cave in Cape Town, South Africa
Prof. Chris Henshilwood, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg


As we can see, color and décor was essential to the survival of early humans. It gave early humans cultural identity. It was a way to distinguish one tribe from another rival tribe, similar to how bird’s plumage and color distinguish one species of bird from another. Humans where not monochromatic anymore. They were as richly colored as the rest of nature. Color and decor was a way to scare away potential enemies and attract mates. For humans color and décor communicate intent, while in nature, color and décor are perceived and understood.

The art of painting/polychromy was a form of communication. Prehistoric humans were  painting the bones of their dead with red ochre. Perhaps these painted human skeletons were the first symbolic three dimensional sculptural representations, but the Venus of Willendorf clearly shows that color depicted intent and established symbolic communication or expression in ancient humans. To think that early sculpture was colorless would be to ignore or not know of the origins of art in human evolution.

Queen Nefertiti of Egypt is on display in Berlin's Neues Museum (New Museum).

Statues found in ancient Mesopotamia dating back to 2900-2300 BC, are Polychromed. The Egyptians regularly Polychromed their sculptures, coffins, masks and bronzes. Who could forget the famous Queen Nefertiti? The 3,300-year-old bust of Queen Nefertiti of Egypt. Made of Polychromed limestone, 1345 B.C., by the sculptor Thutmose. If Egyptian architecture was a clear influence on ancient Greek architecture, then it would be safe to assume that their Polychromed sculpture would be as well.

The terracotta army of Qin Shihuang was also thought to be monochromatic, but the evidence is overwhelming for them being richly painted. (Fig 8) As in these replicas of a high rank officer and a kneeling archer with reconstructed polychromy. 

Replicas of a high rank officer and a kneeling archer with reconstructed polychromy. They are 190 and 120 cm high, respectively.


It’s clear that polychromy was used throughout the world before during and after the ancient Greeks. The use of color was used to communicate symbolically and decoratively since the dawn of modern humans. Employing color on architecture and sculpture was in line with the way nature employs color throughout its history. To remove color from sculpture would take a whole new philosophical outlook upon the arts and aesthetic appreciation. One that the Renaissance was prepared for and misguidedly set into motion.

The reconstructions of the ancient architectural sculptures of Greece and China point to the use of bright vivid colors. Not delicately painted ones. Why? Simply because these sculptures were meant to be seen from a distance. The colors had to be strong to be visible from a distance and to withstand the harsh environmental conditions they were exposed to. The Greek sculptures that were displayed in street level conditions must have been painted less garish and with a more realistic delicate approach.


The Renaissance

 Nicola Pisano, "Self Portrait" Statue at the Uffizi Florence, Italy (1220-1278)
One of the first Renaissance artists to use contrapposto.

Giorgio Vasari was the first to coin the term Renaissance or ‘Rinascita’ in Italian. According to Giorgio Vasari, the first artist to show the influence of Classical sculpture and the first to reintroduce ‘la bella maniera’ of the ancients to the art of Christianity was Nicola Pisano. This is a "Self Portrait" Statue at the Uffizi Florence, Italy. The contrapposto pose is clearly expressed. Vasari relates that Nicola Pisano constantly studied Roman remains and that Roman sculptures seem to have marked a deep impression on him. Putting the early Renaissance and its sculpture into the context of the period is essential for understanding why white marble was the preferred sculptural material and why colorless form has dominated our perception of sculpture since the times of the Renaissance.

Renaissance means re-birth or to be reborn in Italian. But what exactly was reborn to warrant such a name for this time period? Was art and culture reborn? By the early 15th century interest in Classical Rome, its Literature, ruins and sarcophagi, were making an impact upon the early Renaissance. This new interest in the Classics brought about the first archaeological study of Roman remains by the architect Brunelleschi and sculptor Donatello. The influence from classic sculpture can clearly be seen in Donatello's "David." It is the first unsupported standing work of bronze cast during the Renaissance, and the first freestanding nude male sculpture made since classical antiquity. 

“David” Bronze, by Donatello between 1430 and 1432. It is currently located in the Bargello Palace and Museum.

Polychromy was nothing new to the early Renaissance. Even Donatello practiced polychromy as seen in his sculpture of John the Baptist. Filippo Brunelleschi's Madonna with Child, is another example. The polychromy of religious sculpture and architectural elements was common throughout the middle ages. Church interiors and exteriors were covered in polychromy of which not much survives today due to exposure from the elements and weathering. Artists like Donatello and Leonardo da Vinci would have been raised in a world full of sculptural polychromy. Perhaps ancient polychrome techniques were never lost, and were handed down since classical Roman times. By the early Renaissance the polychromy of religious icons was wide spread throughout Europe.

  “St John the Baptist” 1438 Painted wood, height 141 cm, The Chapel of St John the Baptist, Santa Maria Gloriosa dei Frari, Venice
Madonna with Child, Filippo Brunelleschi, 1405
Italy,  Palazzo Vescovile, Fiesole, Italy

With the fall of Constantinople in 1453, Italy experienced an influx of classical Greek scholars and texts. Classical Greek Philosophy, Prose, Poetry, Drama, and Science, lost to scholars for centuries was now widely available and sought after. The Medieval Church image was losing ground to this new interest in an enlightened classical age. Italian culture was literally being re-born and influenced by ancient Roman and Greek culture.


“Apollo Belvedere” Circa 120–140; copy of bronze original after Leochares, 350–325 BC, Vatican Museums, Vatican City.

The late 15th century and the early 16th century saw the emergence of two major Greek sculptures. The "Apollo Belvedere" discovered in 1489, is said to have been above ground for nearly a century before it received much attention. It is a roman marble copy of an original Greek Bronze, which was held in the highest regard by the later neoclassical movement. "Laocoön and His Sons," another roman marble copy, was discovered in 1506 and is perhaps the biggest influence of Greek sculpture on Renaissance artists. 


  “Laocoön and his sons,” also known as the Laocoön Group. Marble, copy after an Hellenistic original from ca. 200 BC. Found in the Baths of Trajan, 1506. Vatican Museums, Vatican City

Upon its discovery, the Pope sent Architect Giuliano da Sangallo to the discovery site, who then asked Michelangelo to accompany him. As soon as the sculpture was raised everyone present started to draw. The sculpture received instant fame and was copied throughout the Renaissance. This is the sculpture that the Greek historian Pliny had described as 'superior to any other work in sculpture or painting' and Renaissance artists took note. Literally thousands of ancient sculptural objects were found during the course of the Renaissance. Pope Julius the second (1503 to 1513) was a lover of classical sculpture and when he had the 'Belvedere Courtyard' constructed, he permanently moved his vast collection of classical sculptures there. By this time and earlier, the discovery of white or monochromatic Roman sculpture was influencing the sculptural ideology of the time.

Leonardo da Vinci's argued that sculpture had no color and is only concerned with form in his “Treatise on Painting.” He pitted painting against sculpture arguing:

“The painter has ten considerations with which he is concerned in finishing his works, namely light, shade, color, body, shape, position, distance, nearness, motion and rest; the sculptor has only to consider body, shape, position and rest. With light and shade he does not concern himself, because nature produces them for his sculpture. Of color there is none. With distance and closeness he only concerns himself in part, in that he only uses linear perspective but not the perspective of color which varies in hue and distinctness of outline with different distances from the eye. Therefore sculpture has few considerations and consequently is less demanding of talent than painting.”

Leonardo da Vinci essentially ignored the sculptural polychromy of his time, even though major artists were now experimenting with polychromy throughout Europe. The aesthetic ideology of his time was being transformed, into an aesthetic ideal of classical antiquity. It was a pro-enlightenment and anti-Religious aesthetic. Leonardo da Vinci was mistakenly assigning a monochromatic classical aesthetic to sculpture, based on the monochromatic Greek and Roman sculptures discovered. In doing so, he was making sculpture subordinate to painting, stripping it of all association with color. Sculpture would no longer serve the confined intellectual scope of the Christian faith, but a new reborn intellectual and enlightened one. 

In addition to Leonardo’s influence, Michelangelo played an important role in magnifying white marble as the preferred sculptural material. Even before the discovery of the “Laocoön and his Sons” Michelangelo’s “David” was a monumental work in white marble, that epitomized classical sculptural ideals. With every new discovery of classical sculpture, this white marble monochromatic ideal was re-enforced.


“David” Michelangelo, 1501 to 1504, Palazzo della Signoria, Florence, Italy.

While this new some what misguided monochromatic white sculptural ideal was gaining favor in Italy, Europe continued to be a polychromy haven for sculpture all the way into the 17th century. Church dominance still had a hold on other parts of Europe especially in Spain, but the classical influence was beginning to be felt. Artists like Gregor Erhart of Germany was making life size Polychromed sculptures, as in the Saint Mary Magdalene c. 1515-20. Although his use of polychrome is an influence of Gothic religious tradition, classical influence can clearly be seen in her contraposto pose. The Spanish took Polychromed sculpture to a new level in the 17th century. Perhaps never to be surpassed, as in the sculpture by Pedro de Mena, Mary Magdalen meditating on the crucifixion 1664. Unlike the bold garish polychromy of classical Greek temple sculptures that were meant to be seen from a distance, these Spanish Polychrome sculptures were carefully crafted to give the illusion of reality. They were finely sculpted and painted to be seen up close so detail and realism were important.





Gregor Erhart Saint Mary Magdalene c. 1515-20 / Pedro de Mena (1628-1688), Mary Magdalen Meditating on the Crucifixion


The Rise in Archeology

The Renaissance saw a rise in Humanist antiquarians, but it was not until the seventeenth century that antiquarians would make an impact upon the growing interest in archaeology. Antiquarians studied history with particular attention to ancient artifacts, manuscripts, archaeological and historical sites. During the time of the Renaissance Archaeology was in its infancy. Archaeology would not blossom into a systematic empirical science of examination until the late eighteenth and early 19th century, with the arrival of Johann Winckelmann, (1717–68) who is considered the founding father of scientific archaeology. Regarding Greek sculptural aesthetics, Johann Winckelmann is often quoted with saying “noble simplicity and quiet grandeur.” Winckelmann promoted the ideal of simplicity and whiteness of Greek sculpture and went on to inspire the colorless neoclassical movement.




Portrait of Johann Winckelmann By Raphael Mengs,1761 – 1762, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.

Is it possible that until then almost all the Classical sculptural artifacts discovered since the early Renaissance had been discovered without any traces of color? The book “Unearthing the Past: Archaeology and Aesthetics in the Making of Renaissance Culture” by Leonard Barkan, is a comprehensive investigation into the influence of classical sculptures and artifacts on the Renaissance culture, yet there is no mention of polychromy at all. It is hard to believe that in the 400 years of unearthing and rediscovering classical artifacts, no one would mention or document any polychromy found. In the light of contemporary interest in ancient polychromy, new readings into the work of Johann Winckelmann shows that he was on the contrary, one of the discoverers of polychromy on statues of Classical Antiquity, and noted that polychromy was a feature not only of Egyptian or Etruscan, but also of Greek art. Instead he chose to white wash the importance of polychromy to ancient civilizations in favor of no color, due to the prevailing ideals of his time, based on the ideals of the Renaissance. 

It was in the late 18th century and early 19th century that saw the rise of archaeological interest, when the French led by Napoleon swept over Europe. Until then the French academy was dependent on Rome to supply classical masterpieces, but Napoleon had other cultural ambitions. Not only did the French want military dominance, but cultural superiority as well. Classical Rome and Greece became coveted, and the Vatican collection of classical masterpieces would soon become property of the French, and its national treasures bought and sold throughout Europe. The archaeological ambitions of the new French Empire became clear in 1797 with the Treaty of Tolentino, which provided for the shipment from the Vatican to France of the Laocoön and the Apollo Belvedere, amongst many more archeological Roman treasures. Pressure was also put on many Roman leading families to sell their collections at below market prices. These works were to be housed in the new Napoleon Museum (The old Louvre). The Treaty of Tolentino meant the loss of many of Rome’s greatest treasures, as well as undermined its position as center for culture and tourism. With this in mind Rome increased its archaeological activity in the hopes of replacing the classical masterpieces it had lost. This was a period that national interests in nations own archaeological treasures developed. Other than looting Roman treasures, the French also undertook important archaeological work in Rome and Pompeii, and laid a foundation for the science of archaeology.



Colorful Reconstruction of the archaic Western pediment of the Temple of Aphaia at Aegina  1906, by Adolf Furtwängler.

Until the 19th century Rome had been the focus of classical archaeology. With the influence of Neoclassicism and Romanticism, interest in Greece opened up a floodgate of tourists, artists and scholars interested in classical Greece. It was not until the early 19th century when excavations started on a large scale in Greece and Athens, that color was clearly to be seen on the Parthenon and other classical monuments.  Excavations began in 1811 on the island of Aegina, uncovering the extensive remains of polychromy on the late archaic sculpture and architecture of the Temple of Aphaia. French architect Quatremère de Quincy who was a die-hard neoclassicist, was one of the first to publish accounts of the polychromy on ancient Greek sculptures, in a book called ‘Le Jupiter Olympien.’ He concentrated on the lost statue of Zeus at Olympia, a work by Greek sculptor Phidias at the sanctuary of Olympia, Greece, and erected in the Temple of Zeus. A reconstruction of it was on the front piece of his book. In his book he concluded that color has clearly been a constituent element of classical Greek sculpture.



 Zeus at Olympia, A work by Greek sculptor Phidias around 435 BC at the sanctuary of Olympia, Greece, and erected in the Temple of Zeus. A reconstruction from the cover of ‘Le Jupiter Olympien.’ A book by Antoine- Chrysosthome Quatremère de Quincy.

The Neoclassicist’s were up until then, interpreting freshly emerging Classical sculpture as monochromatic, and misinterpreting Greek and Roman sculpture as white and colorless. Just like the Renaissance did. Most of the Greek sculpture unearthed during the renaissance were Roman marble copies that were weathered and had lost their color, leading them to believe that most Greek sculpture was done in white marble. In the time of the Renaissance the empirical science of archaeology, which utilizes systematic examination and documentation was yet to be established. 



Giovanni Antonio da Brescia, Laocoön and His Two Sons Devoured by the Snake, engraving, c. 1506–20, 283 × 250 mm. British Museum, 

Although drawings were made during the renaissance period shortly after these sculptures were discovered, they were only artistic interpretations rather than scientific illustrations, which are based on careful examination. If the Laocoön and the Apollo of Belvedere had been discovered today. It is most certain that with the strict rules of scientific archaeology and modern conservation science, traces of polychromy would have most likely been found. Sadly no traces of color have survived, but according to “Circumlitio: The Polychromy of Antique and Medieval Sculpture,” older photographs, however, exhibit remnants of the polychromy in the eyes of the Apollonian priest, of the Laocoön group.




 Sphinx with Pigeons


What the science of conservation tells us about ancient Polychromy is that all objects, whether painted or constructed will undergo decay in the form of erosion and weathering, due to their exposure to environmental elements. Light, water, rain, snow, humidity, wind, erosion, animal excretions, microorganisms, heat and cold, all act to decay any surface, especially painted surfaces, which are extremely thin. By the time of the Renaissance discoveries, almost all visible traces of polychromy would not have been visible to the naked eye. If any visible traces were present, they would have remained unnoticed by the unscientific antiquarians and artists of the time, or simply not paid attention to and forgotten like in the case of Johann Winckelmann.

The Glyptotek project and the Copenhagen Polychromy Network, along with many other museums, are starting to research the polychromy of ancient sculptures. They are using the many contemporary technologies at their disposal for the examination of their sculptures, in order to determine the extent to which these sculptures were Polychromed. These technologies include photography, Ultraviolet and Infrared examination, Raking light examination, Microscopic examination, including scanning electron microscope with X-ray, Fourier transform infra-red absorption spectroscopy, Raman laser spectroscopy (measures vibrational interactions on a molecular level) and inductive plasma mass spectroscopy. (Detects metals by ionizing the samples)

Add caption
Left: Original Warrior's head from the east pediment of the Temple of Aphaia on Aegina. in ultraviolet light, showing scales on the helmet. Greek, ca. 480 B.C.; marble, height 24 cm; Staatliche Antikensammlungen und Glyptothek, Munich. Right: Color reconstruction (Photo courtesy Stiftung Archäologie, Munich)

All of these techniques contribute to the better understanding the materials employed by the ancients when they painted their sculptures, and gives us an insight into how they may have looked when they were freshly painted. Polychrome reconstructions of these sculptures are changing our perception of the white colorless classical sculpture we’ve grown used to. What we now know about ancient classical polychromy is still in its infancy, but promises to be a well-researched field of study.


Conclusion

The Renaissance interrupted and changed the course of Polychromed sculpture, which dominated the way humans made sculpture ever since its invention by our prehistoric ancestors. It did so unknowingly by concentrating on colorless form, thinking this was the aesthetic preference of classical Greece and Rome. It changed the way humans thought about sculpture and the ideals it conveyed. The Renaissance artists went against the religious and artistic convention of its time, which dominated the way art was made.

Although Greek and Roman sculptural form was ancient, for the Renaissance artists it was something new and Avant-garde. The introduction and assimilation of the Greek and Roman arts into the late Medieval period pushed the boundaries of the cultural norm or status quo, and was truly the first avant-garde art movement in history. Transforming the aesthetic appearance of Medieval Europe into the modern and culturally enlightened era called the Renaissance. It paved the way for all future artistic movements against the status quo, and lead the way to thinking critically about the art of making art. Conventional, stagnant and dogmatic human systems were eventually what many artist’s would consider worth changing. Almost every artistic movement that followed, questioned the role of art in the contexts of its society. Art and society had become malleable in the artists minds and hands. Art and society didn’t have to remain the same. Art and society could evolve.

The artist and art had again become an agency for change, in the same manner that the art of our primitive ancestors was. The art of our primitive ancestors affected change through the use of creative educational expression. It was critical thinking and expression at its best, utilizing not just one art form, but all of them at once. Art evolved alongside language, ritual, and spirituality. It employed color, form, mimicry, symbolism, abstraction, music, song, dance, storytelling and ritual. It was a means to express and communicate intent. To affect both change in the minds of their children, and communicate cultural identity and unity to others. The age of enlightenment that was the Renaissance recaptured the original purpose of artistic expression. Art would never be the same.




Published on 2/03/16
Copyright: David Yanez


Bibliography:

Prayers in Stone: Greek Architectural Sculpture, Ridgway, B. S. (1999). Ca. 600-100
       B.C.E. London: University of California Press.

Gods In Color: Painted Sculpture Of Classical Antiquity. Wunsche, V. B. (September 22, 2007-January 20, 2008). Munich: Arthur M. Sackler Museum, Harvard
       University; Apparent First Edition edition (2007).

Unearthing the Past: Archaeology and Aesthetics in the Making of Renaissance Culture
       Leonard, B. (1999). Yale University Press.

Greek Architecture and Its Sculpture. Harvard University Press, Jenkins, Ian (2006)
        p. 271

The study of ancient sculptural polychromy an historiographical introduction. Østergaard,
        J. S. (n.d.). Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek, Copenhagen, PDF

The Color of Life: polychromy in sculpture from antiquity to the present: Roberta
       Panzanelli, Eike D. Schmidt, Kenneth D. S. Lapatin, J. Paul Getty Museum, 2008 –
       Art - 186 pages
CIRCUMLITIO, The Polychromy of Antique and Mediaeval Sculpture, Vinzenz
        Brinkmann, Oliver Primavesi, Max Hollein ,10–12 December 2010, pgs 1-21
        PDF

The Copenhagen Polychromy Network: a research project on ancient Greek and Roman
        sculptural polychromy in the Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek. Østergaard, J. S. (2010).
        Circumlitio: The Polychromy of Antique and Mediaeval Sculpture, 324–335.

In Pursuit of Ancient Pasts : A History of Classical Archaeology in the Nineteenth and
        Twentieth Centuries.Dyson, Stephen L. New Haven, CT, USA: Yale University
        Press,  2006.

Polychromy and Egyptian Bronze: New Evidence for Artificial Coloration
       Susan La Niece, Fleur Shearman, John Taylor and Antony Simpson, Studies in
       Conservation, Vol. 47, No. 2 (2002), pp. 95-108  Published by: Maney Publishing
The binding media of the polychromy of Qin Shihuang’s Terracotta Army. Bonaduce, I.,
        Blaensdorf, C., Dietemann, P., & Colombini, Journal of Cultural M. P. (2008).
        Heritage, 9(1), 103–108. doi:10.1016/j.culher.2007.08.002

Polychromy in the ancient sculpture. Lapatin, K., T. Paul, G. Museum,
        www.liguria.beniculturali.it/getFile.php?id=201

Polychromy In Greek Sculpture, Gisela M.A. Richter, Lindsley F. Hall, The Metropolitan
        Museum of Art Bulletin, New Series, Vol. 2, No. 8 (Apr., 1944), pp. 233-240

Antoine Chrysostôme Quatremère de Quincy (1755-1849) and the Rediscovery of
        Polychromy in Grecian Architecture: Sabatini, P. (2006). Colour Techniques and
        Archaeological. The Second International Congress on Construction …, 393–408.
        Retrieved from http://www.arct.cam.ac.uk/Downloads/ichs/vol-1-393-408-
        bertoncini.pdf

“The Sacred Made Real: Spanish Painting and Sculpture, 1600–1700” @ National
        Gallery of Art, Washington, DC - Eloge de l’Art par Alain Truong. (n.d.). Retrieved May 07, 2014, from http://elogedelart.canalblog.com/archives/2010/02/28/17072723.html

Tracking Colour, The polychromy of Greek and Roman sculpture
        http://www.trackingcolour.com/

Exhibition at Harvard’s Arthur M. Sackler Museum Reveals the Original Colors of
        Ancient Sculpture | Harvard Art Museums. (n.d.). Retrieved April 27, 2014, from
        http://www.harvardartmuseums.org/about/press/exhibition-harvards-arthur-m-sackler-museum-reveals-original-colors-ancient-sculpture

Blombos Cave - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. (n.d.). Retrieved May 19, 2014, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blombos_Cave

The Sacred Made Real, National Gallery, London, Studio International. (n.d.). Retrieved
        May 14, 2014, from http://www.studiointernational.com/index.php/the-sacred-made-real-national-gallery-london

Oldest “Art Studio” Found; Evidence of Early Chemistry. (n.d.). Retrieved May 19,
        2014, from http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2011/10/111013-oldest-art-studio-early-humans-science-archaeology/

Johann Winckelmann (German art historian) -- Encyclopedia Britannica. (n.d.). Retrieved
        April 27, 2014, from http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/644941/Johann-Winckelmann

Renaissance (1300s-1600s) | Scholastic ART | Scholastic.com. (n.d.). Retrieved April 17,
        2014, from http://www.scholastic.com/browse/article.jsp?id=3753904

Exhibition at harvard’s arthur m. sackler museum reveals the original colors of ancient
        sculpture. (2008). PDF

When Art Was the Scientist’s Eye: 400 Years of Natural History Illustrations. (n.d.).
        Retrieved April 28, 2014, from http://hyperallergic.com/97027/when-art-was-the-scientists-eye-400-years-of-natural-history-illustrations/

Winckelmann’s impact on Neoclassicism — ART HISTORY SPOT. (n.d.). Retrieved
        April 27, 2014, from http://www.arthistoryspot.com/2009/09/winckelmann’s-impact-on-neoclassicism/

True Colors Arts & Culture Smithsonian.com (n.d.).
        http://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/true-colors-17888/?no-ist

Saint Mary Magdalene | Louvre Museum | Paris. (n.d.). Retrieved May 07, 2014, from
        http://www.louvre.fr/en/oeuvre-notices/saint-mary-magdalene?selection=44880

Passavant, D., Vinzenz, D., Primavesi, O., & Hollein, M. (2011). Looking at Colour on
        post-Antique Sculpture, (5), 10–12. PDF

Color Sculpture and Architecture: Philadelphia Revives the Ancient Art of Greek
        Polychrome, www.quondam.com/19/1928.htm. (n.d.). Retrieved April 26, 2014, from http://www.quondam.com/19/1928.htm

That Classic White Sculpture Once Had a Paint Job - New York Times. (n.d.). Retrieved
        April 24, 2014, from http://www.nytimes.com/2007/10/14/arts/design/14unge.html?ex=1349928000&en=7b4d011387fe7649&ei=5124&partner=permalink&exprod=permalink&_r=0

Pingel, K., & Stubbe Ostergaard, J. (2009). Ancient Feast of Color. Retrieved from
        http://www.leica-microsystems.com/science-lab/ancient-feast-of-color/